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Medical Terminology is a specialised language used by health care practitioners . It’s their very own language and it helps them understand what is happening or what has to be done to help a patient. Medical terminology is made up of the terms that describe body organs, systems, and their functions, body locations, diseases, clinical, diagnostic imaging, and laboratory testing, together with clinical
procedures, surgeries, and diagnoses. Medical Terms The majority of medical words are based on Latin and Greek. There are two major categories of medical terms: Descriptive – describing shape, colour, size, function, etc., and Eponyms, terms
used in medicine which are named after people and occasionally places or things. Examples of eponyms are fallopian tubes (uterine tubes-Gabriello Fallopio) and eustachian tubes (auditory tubes-Bartolommeo Eustachii). The problem with eponyms is that they give no useful information about what is or where to find the item named. In recent times, the trend has been toward replacing eponyms with descriptive names. For this reason, we will not spend time learning them. However, some things are known
almost exclusively by their eponym. To understand medical terms, you need to learn a few fundamentals of how medical terminology is constructed as a language. There are three basic parts to medical terms: A medical term usually describes in one word a disease or condition that, under normal circumstances, would take several words to describe. An example of this is the word
‘pericarditis. The prefix is peri- meaning around or enclosing. Therefore ‘pericarditis’ is the inflammation of the area surrounding the heart. What is a Prefix A prefix is a letter or group of letters placed at the beginning of a word to add further meaning to the word. Common
Prefixes
anemia (literally no blood but means few red cells) Prefixes that denote measurement or quantity
Prefixes that denote colour
Prefixes that denote speed
Prefixes that denote direction
What are Root Words The root of a word is the part that contains the essential meaning of the word. Very often the root of the word relates to a body part. Therefore, if you have a good knowledge of root words then you at least understand which area of the body the word or term relates to. Common Root words The following are common root words that relate to body parts
Combining vowels Sometimes medical terms have more than one root word. An example of this is the word leucocyte. The root words are ‘leuc’ meaning white and ‘cyte’ meaning a cell. To join these two words together the combining vowel ‘o’ was used to ensure a smoother flow with pronunciation. The combining vowel is a word part, usually an o, and is used to ease pronunciation of the medical term. A combining vowel is used to connect two word roots and to connect a word root and a suffix. There are four very important guidelines that must be followed for the use of combining vowels:
What is a Suffix A suffix can be a letter or letters placed at the end of a word that also adds more meaning. In medical words the suffix often describes a condition procedure or a disease process. Common Suffixes
Suffixes with similar meanings The following suffixes all mean ‘relating to’ and form common endings for many medical words.
Suffixes referring to medical procedures
Whenever you see these endings, graphy, graph, gram, they relate to recording an image such as an X-ray, CT or MRI scan or a written recording with pen and moving paper. Mammography is the process of recording, i.e. the machine and procedure. Mammogram is the image itself, the X-ray. A recording of heart activity is called an electrocardiogram using an electrocardiograph. A recording of brain activity is an electroencephalogram and the medical procedure and machine is called electroencephalography.
To see a lung specialist, you would visit a pulmonologist. To see a specialist in nerve and brain disease, make an appointment with a neurologist. If you have a bad eye infection, you may be referred to an ophthalmologist. Medical Homonyms Many medical words or phrases sound the same or similar but have quite different meanings. These words are called homonyms. A homonym is a word that is pronounced exactly like another word but has different meaning and different spellings. In the medical situation extreme care must be taken to ensure that words are used in the correct context. Here are some examples: Abduction: Moving the limb or hand away from the body (midline). Adduction: Moving the limb or hand towards the body (midline). Aural: It relates to the ear or to the sense of hearing. Oral: It refers to the mouth or speaking. Flexor: It is a muscle that serves to flex or bend a part of the body. Flexure: It denotes the bent portion of an organ or structure. Example: sigmoid flexure, splenic flexure. Palpation: It is a method of feeling with the fingers or hands during physical examination. Palpitation: It is the subjective feeling of an irregular or abnormally rapid heartbeat. Vesical: It refers to the urinary bladder. Vesicles: These are small, fluid-filled sacs that appear on the skin. Strategies for tackling new words An understanding of Medical Terminology is a vitally important trait for individuals working in a number of roles in the medical field, so you need to discover helpful hints to master the language. With medical terminology, sounds are not always pronounced the same as in English, and sometimes there may be more than one acceptable pronunciation. You should learn how to pronounce phonetically. See the patterns in words – Most medical terms can be broken down into smaller parts. These parts are typically a combination of a root word (the base of the word), a prefix (the first few letters of a word), and a suffix (the ending of a word). For example, the word pathology means “the study of disease”. How do we know? The root word “patho” means “of or relating to a disease” and the suffix “logy” means “the study of a [certain subject]”. Knowing this, we can then assume that words with similar roots have related meanings. Examples include cardiology (study of the heart), dermatology (study of the skin), and gastroenterology (study of the stomach). Breaking down words in this way reduces the amount of memorization you’ll have to do to master complex medical terms. You can also download lists or “cheat sheets” that cover the most common medical roots, prefixes, and suffixes. Having this list as a guide and reference point will help you quickly understand any term that comes your way. Your medical dictionary is one of your best resources for learning correct pronunciation and spelling of medical words. Medical practices generally have a number of medical dictionaries available in either hard copy or electronically. Practice managers and other experienced staff can also provide assistance where necessary. It is also possible to install specialised medical terminology spell check software on computers but users will still need to check that terminology has been used in the correct context. Note: Ensure you are using an Australian medical dictionary. Words can be spelt differently in other countries such as America. Body Systems There are 10 body systems:
Each organ belongs to one of ten human body systems. A body system is a group of parts that work together to serve a common purpose. These body systems are interconnected and dependent upon one another to function. By learning about the different systems working inside the body, you can understand how everything works together to keep a body healthy and strong. Circulatory System The circulatory system (also known as cardiovascular) has the job of transporting substances throughout the body. With a system of veins and arteries, blood moves continuously all over the body. Blood carries chemicals to the places they need to go, and it also transports waste products to be eliminated from the body. The circulatory system is very important because it works together with every other system and organ in the body. The primary function of the circulatory system
Main organs of the circulatory system Your heart is the only circulatory system organ. Blood goes from the heart to the lungs to get oxygen. The lungs are part of the respiratory system. Your heart then pumps oxygenated blood through arteries to the rest of the body. Circulatory System Terms
Common procedures specific to the circulatory system
Common conditions relating to the circulatory system
Respiratory System Breathing in air and using the oxygen in it are the most important functions of the respiratory system. The body breathes in air through the nose and the mouth. The air moves through airways to the lungs. In the lungs, fresh oxygen goes into the blood for transport throughout the body. Carbon dioxide moves out of the body as you exhale.  The primary function of the Respiratory System Is to transport air into the lungs and to facilitate the diffusion of oxygen into the blood stream. The main organs of the Respiratory System are The main organ of the respiratory system is the lungs. Other respiratory organs include the nose, the trachea and the breathing muscles (the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles). Respiratory System Terms
Procedures relating to the Respiratory System
Common conditions of the Respiratory System
Nervous System The nervous system is a complex network of nerves and cells that carry messages to and from the brain and spinal cord to various parts of the body. The primary function of the nervous system The nervous system acts as the coordinator of all activities of the body. Different parts of your body send messages to the brain through the nerves and spinal cord. Once your brain gets these messages, it responds by interpreting the messages and reacting. The brain can then send instructions out to the body. Major organs of the nervous system The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, sensory organs, and all of the nerves that connect these organs with the rest of the body. Nervous System Terms
Procedures used to diagnose conditions of the nervous system
Common conditions relating to the nervous system
Musculoskeletal System Muscular System The muscular system has three different kinds of muscles: cardiac, smooth, and voluntary. Cardiac muscles are in your heart, and these muscles have the job of pumping blood. The smooth muscles are the ones that work inside your body for functions like digesting food. Voluntary muscles are the ones that you control with your brain to move your body. The muscular system might weigh as much as one-half of a person’s total body weight. The body has different types of muscles that are designed to perform different types of jobs, some voluntary and others involuntary. Skeletal System The bones, tendons, and ligaments in the body make up the skeletal system. This system is in charge of supporting the body and all of the systems in it. Teeth are also part of the skeletal system. Bones are strong so they can protect fragile organs inside the body. The ribs are in place in the chest to protect the heart and lungs. Bones have a tough outer covering and an inner spongy layer that contains marrow. An adult human body contains 206 bones that are connected by ligaments, tendons, and cartilage. A baby has approximately 270 bones, some of which will fuse together as a child grows. The main function of the Musculoskeletal System The main function of the Muscular System
The main function of the Skeletal System Support, movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of minerals and endocrine regulation. Musculoskeletal system terms
Common procedures associated with muscles and bones
Common conditions associated with the musculoskeletal system
The most common condition affecting bones is fractures. The following is a list of words and their meanings that relate to bone fractures.
Digestive System The digestive system is in charge of taking the food you eat and turning it into the fuel your body needs to function. With every bite of food, saliva begins working immediately to get food ready to swallow. The tongue and teeth also help with this process. After swallowing food, it moves down the oesophagus to the stomach for digestion. Food then moves through the intestines, where the digestive system breaks down and absorbs nutrients for the body to use. The human digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract plus the accessory organs of digestion. The digestive tract, which passes from the mouth through the oesophagus and onwards through the intestines, has a length of about 5 metres in a normal adult. The major parts of the digestive system The major parts of the digestive system
The functions of the digestive system Functions of the GI
system Functions of the Oesophagus Functions of the Stomach Functions of the small intestine Functions of the large intestine Digestive System Terms
Common procedures specific to the digestive system or the GI Tract
Common conditions relating to the gastrointestinal tract
Endocrine System The endocrine system is made up of glands that make hormones. Hormones are the body’s chemical messengers. They carry information and instructions from one set of cells to another. The endocrine system influences almost every cell, organ, and function of our bodies. The primary function of the Endocrine System Endocrine glands release hormones into the bloodstream. This lets the hormones travel to cells in other parts of the body. The endocrine hormones help control mood, growth and development, the way our organs work, metabolism and reproduction. The endocrine system regulates how much of each hormone is released. This can depend on levels of hormones already in the blood, or on levels of other substances in the blood, like calcium. Many things affect hormone levels, such as stress, infection, and changes in the balance of fluid and minerals in blood. The major glands that make up the endocrine system While many parts of the body make hormones, the major glands that make up the endocrine system are the:
The pancreas is part of the endocrine system and the digestive system. That’s because it secretes hormones into the bloodstream and makes and secretes enzymes into the digestive tract. Functions of the various glands Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is in the lower central part of the brain. It links the endocrine system and nervous system. Nerve cells in the hypothalamus make chemicals that control the release of hormones secreted from the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus gathers information sensed by the brain (such as the surrounding temperature, light exposure, and feelings) and sends it to the pituitary. This information influences the hormones that the pituitary makes and releases. Pituitary: The pituitary gland is at the base of the brain and is no bigger than a pea. Despite its small size, the pituitary is often called the “master gland.” The hormones it makes control many other endocrine glands. The pituitary gland makes many hormones, such as:
The pituitary also secretes endorphins, chemicals that act on the nervous system and reduce feelings of pain. The pituitary also secretes hormones that signal the reproductive organs to make sex hormones. The pituitary gland also controls ovulation and the menstrual cycle in women. Thyroid: The thyroid is in the front part of the lower neck. It’s shaped like a bow tie or butterfly. It makes the thyroid hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine. These hormones control the rate at which cells burn fuels from food to make energy. The more thyroid hormone there is in the bloodstream, the faster chemical reactions happen in the body. Parathyroids: Attached to the thyroid are four tiny glands that work together called the parathyroids. They release parathyroid hormone, which controls the level of calcium in the blood with the help of calcitonin, which the thyroid makes. Adrenal Glands: These two triangular adrenal glands sit on top of each kidney. The adrenal glands have two parts, each of which makes a set of hormones and has a different function:
Pineal: The pineal body, also called the pineal gland, is in the middle of the brain. It secretes melatonin a hormone that may help regulate when you sleep at night and when you wake in the morning. Reproductive Glands: The gonads are the main source of sex hormones. Most people don’t realise it, but both males and females have gonads. In males, the male gonads, or testes are in the scrotum. They secrete hormones called androgens, the most important of which is testosterone. These hormones tell a male body when it’s time to make the changes associated with puberty, like penis and height growth, deepening voice, and growth in facial and pubic hair. Working with hormones from the pituitary gland, testosterone also tells a male body when it’s time to make sperm in the testes. A female’s gonads, the ovaries are in her pelvis. They make eggs and secrete the female hormones estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen is involved when a female starts puberty. During puberty, a female will have breast growth, start to accumulate body fat around the hips and thighs, and have a growth spurt. Estrogen and progesterone are also involved in the regulation of a female’s menstrual cycle. These hormones also play a role in pregnancy. Pancreas: The pancreas makes insulin and glucagon which are hormones that control the level of glucose, or sugar, in the blood. Insulin helps keep the body supplied with stores of energy. The body uses this stored energy for exercise and activity, and it also helps organs work as they should. Endocrine System Terms
Common clinical procedures associated with the endocrine system
Common conditions associated with the endocrine system
One of the most common endocrine disorders is diabetes Type I Diabetes (IDDM) Insulin dependent diabetic. This is a form of early onset diabetes usually first diagnosed in childhood. This form of diabetes is an autoimmune disease. Insulin has stopped being produced by the pancreas. Therefore, insulin injections are needed to control blood sugar levels (BSL). Symptoms include:
Type II Diabetes (NIDDM) Non-insulin dependent diabetic This is a form of diabetes associated with poor lifestyle choices. People who have Type II diabetes are often overweight and do not exercise regularly. There is often a family history of this type of diabetes. Symptoms may be minimal, or they may be asymptomatic. BSL’S (blood sugar levels) are often very high. The pancreas continues to produce insulin but not in adequate amounts to control BSL’S. The treatment for this form of diabetes is:
90% of people diagnosed with diabetes have Type II. Gestational Diabetes – This is a form of diabetes occurring during pregnancy and usually resolves itself following the birth. Lymphatic System The lymphatic system (also known as the bodies sewerage system) is a network of tissues, vessels and organs that work together to move lymph back into your bloodstream. The lymphatic system is part of your immune system (The immune system protects the body against infection and disease). Just as we eliminate our wastes into a toilet, each one of your 50+ trillions cells eliminate their wastes into the lymphatic system. These wastes are carried out to the lymph nodes by the lymph vessels, in the same way as the sewer pipes in a house would carry wastes to a septic tank. The primary function of the lymphatic system Is to transport lymph, a clear fluid containing infection-fighting white blood cells (known as a lymphocyte), throughout the body. Lymph contains tissue fluid, waste products and immune system cells. The main organs associated with the lymphatic system The tissues and organs that produce, store, and carry white blood cells that fight infections and other diseases are the thymus and bone marrow, as well as secondary lymphatic tissues including spleen, tonsils, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, adenoids, skin and liver. Lymphatic system terms
Common definitions associated with the lymphatic system
Common conditions associated with the lymphatic system
Male Reproductive System The male reproductive system is the system of sex organs of male human beings that are a part of the overall reproductive process. The primary function of the male reproductive system
The main organs of the male reproductive system Testes, prostate glands, sperm ducts, epididymis, urethra and penis. Male reproductive system terms
Common conditions/procedures of the male reproductive system
Female Reproductive System The female reproductive system is the system of sex organs of female human beings that are a part of the overall reproductive process. The primary functions of the female reproductive system
The main organs of the female reproductive system Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, vulva, mammary glands and breasts. Female reproductive system terms
Common procedures relating to the female reproductive system
Common conditions relating to the female reproductive system
Integumentary System The integumentary system is the set of organs that forms the external covering of the body and protects it from many threats such as infection and abrasion. The primary function of the integumentary system Is to act as a barrier to protect the body from the outside world. It also functions to retain body fluids, protect against disease, eliminate waste products, and regulate body temperature. The main organs of the integumentary system Skin (the largest organ of the body), hair, nails and exocrine glands. Integumentary system terms
Common procedures specific to the skin Excision: Removal of a skin lesion Skin biopsy: Removal of a small amount of tissue for examination Cryotherapy: Application of extreme cold to destroy abnormal cells Curettage: Scraping of a superficial skin lesion for examination Common conditions associated with skin damage
Skin damage caused by burns Burns can be caused from:
Burns are measured in degrees. The higher the degree, the more severe is the burn. Burns can be 1st degree (superficial), 2nd degree (partial thickness) and 3rd degree (full thickness). 1st degree burns (superficial) are the least severe. There is damage to the outer layer of the skin (the epidermis) and the skin may look inflamed, red or both. In 2nd degree burns (partial thickness) there is damage to the epidermis and the dermis. The skin may be blistered and there may be skin loss. There is also intense pain because there has been damage to the nerves in the dermal layer. 3rd degree burns (full thickness) are by far the more dangerous. There is damage to the epidermis, the dermis and to the deeper sub-cutaneous layers. The skin may appear charred. As the nerve endings are dead, there is often not a lot of pain. The larger the surface area of the burn the poorer the prognosis. If large areas of the body are affected, then fluid balance is difficult to maintain. The risk of infection in severe burns is also very high. Medical Procedures and Equipment Medical procedures fall into two broad categories: diagnostic and surgical. Diagnostic Diagnostic procedures are preformed for the purpose of determining the cause of an illness. Examples are:
Surgical Surgical procedures are operations performed to treat a medical problem after the diagnosis has been established. Examples are:
Different types of surgery Surgery types you may need to be aware of include:
Chemotherapy and radiation therapy might also be considered forms of surgery or surgical processes. Associated procedures might include non-surgical but invasive treatment/diagnosis processes such as cardiac catheterisation, endoscopy, and placing of chest tubes of central lines. Terminology related to surgery/surgical processes Surgical procedures are commonly categorised by urgency, type of procedure, body system involved, degree of invasiveness and special instrumentation. Terminology related to types of surgery/surgical processes include:
When working in a medical/health service practice administrative staff might be asked questions by patients, so they are required to understand the basics of the procedures. Other relevant information:
Common pathology tests
Common instruments used in general medicine Medical equipment means any instrument, apparatus or machine, intended for use in the clinical diagnosis and treatment of patients. There are a multitude of medical instruments. Each area of medicine has its own specialised range, for example endoscopes, are instruments that view parts of the body. Colposcopes, hysteroscopes and colonoscopes are all types of endoscope.
Major Specialised Areas of Medicine
Medical Abbreviation, Acronyms & Symbols A-Z Abbreviations List Care should be taken with the use and interpretation of abbreviations and symbols as there is often more than one meaning to an abbreviation. The following examples are generally widely accepted. A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Abbreviations that signify time
Abbreviations that are used for units of measurement
Abbreviation for type of medication or method of drug administration
Common Symbols
Acronyms An acronym is a pronounceable word formed from the first letter or first few letters of each word in a phrase or title. Most acronyms are expressed in uppercase letters, but not always. For example, laser stands for (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) Acronyms and abbreviations are commonly used in the medical world to save time and space whilst writing in the patients’ medical records. As various specialties have evolved, each has developed a collection of commonly used abbreviations within its practice, which may not be recognizable to those not working within the same field. Here is a very small example list of acronyms.
Drug Categories and classes Medical practitioners frequently include references to drugs in their correspondence. They might refer to a drug by its generic name or brand name or they might refer to a category or class of drugs. MIMS is the leading supplier of trusted, quality, independent medicine information to Australian healthcare professionals. Medical practitioners subscribe to MIMS Online who provides a wide range of Australian medicines information – full product information, abbreviated product information, a drug interaction module and a pill identification module and more. The difference between the generic and brand name The generic name – is the drug’s ‘active ingredient’ that makes it work. Generic names are usually typed in lower case. The brand name – is given by the pharmaceutical company that markets the drug. Brand names are typed with initial capitals. For example: ibuprofen a generic name Advil is the brand name. The classes of drugs in Australia include:
Drugs can be categorised by the way in which they affect our bodies:
Drugs can also be grouped by how or where they are commonly used.
The Medicine Cabinet Below you will find a list of common medications, their purpose and examples of the products used. Note: Brands are the proprietary names and trademarks of the pharmaceutical companies that make and distribute them. This content is for educational information only. Ask your doctor or pharmacist any questions you may have about taking your medications. Analgesics Commonly know as They are used for Examples “Feeling no pain” in Greek. These are some of the most common medications taken. Many are available OTC (over the counter-without prescription). Most all of these drugs work on three things: pain, inflammation, and fever. Each varies in its potency for one of these three complaints. Aspirin and Tylenol are taken for colds, headaches, sinus pain, muscular aches. Aspirin has a strong anti-inflammatory action and is often taken for many problems involving inflammatory reactions: infections, bruising, broken bones and arthritis. Severe pain, such as after surgery, may require stronger analgesics, narcotics, such as codeine. Antacids Commonly know as They are used for Examples Who hasn’t had “heartburn” after a big, fatty or spicy meal? So called “heartburn” has nothing to do with the heart, but refers to the burning pain felt behind the breast bone related to meals. The cause is gastric acid backing up into the esophagus. There are three levels of treatment for mild to moderate to severe symptoms. Popping a Rennie or Tums, which contains an alkaline chemical, directly neutralises acid. If heartburn occurs frequently, several times a week, your physician may recommend Zantac or Pepcid which are OTC available histamine blockers. Histamine in the stomach is one of the signals that stimulates acid production. For severe heartburn your physician may prescribe a medication that directly blocks acid production, a proton-pump inhibitor, such as Prevacid (sounds like someone combined “prevent” and “acid”). Each is progressively more effective, but more expensive and with more side effects. Antiarthritic Commonly know
as They are used for Examples Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disease, that is, the immune system attacks joint tissue as if it were foreign tissue leading to joint pain, swelling, redness, warmth (the four criteria of inflammation). Ultimately, joint tissues are damaged. The cause is unknown, but something triggers the inflammatory reaction which becomes chronic and results in destruction of joint structures. All antiarthritic medications have a common goal, to avoid, suppress or interrupt the inflammatory process. Keep in mind that inflammation is a normal and desirable process when we have an infection. Normally, the inflammatory process, involving bringing in leucocytes (white blood cells) and antibodies does its job and then resolves with the healing process. It is when inflammation develops as a result of an abnormal trigger and/or becomes chronic that normal tissues can be damaged with joint destruction and immobility as a result. Aspirin and Aleve belong to a category of drugs called NSAIDS (nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs). These medications inhibit synthesis of an intermediary chemical in the inflammatory process called prostaglandins. Antibiotics Commonly know
as They are used for Examples There are many of these drugs so only a brief overview can be offered. Two major categories are called broad spectrum meaning many types of microorganisms are affected, and narrow spectrum meaning one or a few microorganisms are affected. First, how do antibiotics work? How can they kill “bugs” but not us? Two examples follow: Humans need folic acid but can’t make it, so we have to get it in our diet as a vitamin. Bacteria can’t take in folic acid, so they must make it. Sulfa drugs block synthesis of folic acid. Voila! Okay for us. Bad for bacteria. Another example is bacteria have an extra layer around themselves called a cell wall. Penicillins block cell wall synthesis. Humans lack a cell wall outside our cell membranes. Okay for us. Bad for bacteria. Sulphonamides, also called sulpha drugs, were the earliest antibiotics. In those old WWII movies when you see them sprinkling a powder on wounds, that may be a sulpha drug. Over time many organisms have developed resistance to sulpha drugs, so newer antibiotics have to be used. Or, patients develop allergic reactions to sulfa drugs and they must be replaced with other antibiotics. However, they are still used for urinary tract infections and in burn units among other specific uses. Penicillin is effective against a wide variety of microorganisms including pneumococcal pneumonia, staphylococcal infections, meningitis, syphilis and gonorrhea. How would you know that nafcillin, oxacillin, ampicillin and amoxicillin are all forms of peniCILLIN? Unfortunately, some individuals develop an allergic reaction to penicillins and many microorganisms have become resistant. In this category are newer antibiotics called cephalosporins. Resistant strains have developed against these antibiotics also. What is the nature of antibiotic resistance (more difficult to kill)? In the case of penicillins some microorganisms have developed an enzyme, penicillinase, that inactivates the antibiotic. Microorganisms may also change the chemical structure of their cell walls, the target of penicillins and cephalosporins. Those wily bacteria! Tetracyclines interfere with bacterial protein synthesis. They effectively stop bacterial growth so our immune system can finish them off. This works because of subtle differences in the protein making machinery of microorganisms and human cells. Tetracyclines are used in chlamydial infections, Lyme disease, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, mycoplasma pneumonia, cholera, syphilis, among others. Another inhibitor of protein synthesis is Erythromycin which is the drug of choice for Legionnaires Disease and one of the few antibiotics that can penetrate the prostate gland. Since it covers a similar spectrum of microorganisms as penicillins, it can be used to treat syphilis in patients who are allergic to penicillin. Why won’t my doctor prescribe an antibiotic when I have a really bad cold? Common colds are caused by viruses. Viruses have neither cell walls nor their own metabolic machinery (they use yours). Consequently, antibiotics don’t work against viruses. Anticoagulants Commonly know
as They are used for Examples Well, they really don’t make your blood thinner. What they do is make your blood less likely to clot (coagulate) when it is undesirable for clotting to take place like inside your coronary arteries (remember thrombus and embolus?). Since anticoagulants interfere with the clotting mechanism, their use must be carefully monitored to make sure clotting does take place normally with a finger cut, but prevent clots forming after your hip surgery. Anticonvulsants Commonly know as They are used for Examples Although head trauma or a brain tumor can cause seizures, many times there is no specific cause and it may be inherited. The function of anticonvulsant drugs is to suppress the source of abnormal electrical activity in the brain. Dilantin is a first choice drug in controlling many forms of seizures. Dilantin along with Valium (a tranquiliser) are first line drugs for “status epilepticus”, continuous seizure activity which must be stopped quickly. However, there are various anticonvulsants for specific forms of epilepsy, all with differing effectiveness, side effects and potential drug interactions with other medications. Many famous people have had epilepsy: Socrates, Julius Caesar, Napoleon, Handel, Charles Dickens, Alfred Nobel and Elton John among many others. Antidepressants Commonly know as They are used for Examples
Antihistamines Commonly know as They are used for Examples Histamine is a natural substance produced by many tissues of the body. Histamine release in nasal passages in response to bacteria or virus infection, sensitivity to various pollens results in a runny nose and nasal congestion. Histamine release in lung tissue causes constriction of air passages. Histamine release in the skin produces redness and itchiness. So, the wide distribution of histamine and its unique actions in those tissues account for the variety of reactions that can occur with its release. Antihistamines block the action of histamine at its target organ. Antihypertensives Commonly know as They are used for Examples Cardiac drugs Commonly know as They are used for Examples There are three major uses for heart medications: regulate an abnormal rhythm (pattern of contractions), strengthen the contractions of a failing heart, respond to cardiac pain. An irregular heart rhythm can lead to a fatal arrhythmia, sudden cardiac death, that is, the heart pumping action failing and stopping. In the normal heart there is one special area of tissue, the pacemaker, that sets “the beat”, the heart rhythm. If an area of the heart becomes irritable or damaged, it can become an abnormal pacemaker. Antiarrhythmic drugs suppress abnormal, irritable tissue from taking over from the normal pacemaker. A myocardial infarct, “heart attack”, may cause abnormal pacemakers to appear or may disrupt the normal signal conduction pathway through the myocardium. Antiarrhythmic drugs also suppress abnormal conduction pathways. In an oversimplified way, many antiarrhythmic drugs act like a local anesthetic on the myocardium. The heart may begin to lose efficiency as a pump due to long term hypertension causing back pressure in the heart, a damaged heart valve allowing leakage can cause back pressure or damaged myocardium can result in reduced pumping efficiency following a heart attack. The back pressure in the heart causes fluid to back up in the lungs, hence the name, congestive heart failure (CHF). The failing heart needs a boost, a drug that will strengthen the force of contractions. Digitalis (Lanoxin in cabinet) is a standard drug used in CHF. Diuretics (see that category) and drugs that dilate blood vessels to lower pressure may also be used to reduce the work load on the heart. Cardiac ischemia produces a unique pain called angina pectoris. It is the heart’s cry for more oxygen due to inadequate coronary artery blood flow. One patient described it “like an elephant sitting on my chest”. A commonly used medication for angina is nitroglycerine. It is not an analgesic, but relieves the cause of the pain, insufficient blood flow to the myocardium. This medication causes the coronary arteries to dilate allowing more blood flow to heart muscle and the anginal pain subsides. Diuretics Commonly know as They are used for Examples “Promoting urine” in Greek. These medications may be used alone or in combination with blood pressure medication. Their purpose is to rid the body of excess fluid which can help lower blood pressure and work demand on the heart. Easing the heart’s work load indirectly prevents fluid accumulation in the air sacs of the lungs which can cause difficulty breathing, especially when lying down. The most common mechanism is to reduce reabsorption of sodium chloride (salt) in the kidneys. More sodium chloride in the urine pulls more water into the urine reducing the body’s fluid volume. Erectile Dysfunction They are used for Examples Erectile dysfunction, what used to be called “impotency”, is the inability to achieve or sustain an erection sufficient to complete intercourse. The three current oral medications for this complaint work by a similar mechanism. Achieving an erection depends upon an hydraulic function of increasing blood flow into the penis at a rate faster than the penile veins can drain it away. Sexual stimulation causes a chemical, nitric oxide, to be released by the lining of the penile arteries which causes relaxation of the muscles of the arterial walls resulting in dilating (widening) of the arteries and increased blood flow. Each of these drugs contain a chemical that slows down the destruction of nitrous oxide so the latter prolongs the dilation of the penile arteries. Note that the medication must act on existing nitric oxide released by sexual stimulation. Popping a pill is not enough. No sexual stimulation. No erection. Although these drugs work by a similar mechanism, they may differ in their effectiveness in individual patients, side effects and drug interactions. Hypnotics Commonly know as They are used
for Examples Chronic insomnia, not being able to get to sleep, frequent waking up, not getting enough sleep, can ruin your day! People with sleeping problems may feel drowsy, even nod off, during the work day. Chronic fatigue from lack of sufficient rest is physically and emotionally draining. Hypnotics are sleep-inducing drugs. Their activity is similar to anti-anxiety medications (see “downers” in the list), tamping down brain activity so you can more easily fall asleep and stay asleep. Hypnotics differ in emphasis. Some are most effective in helping you fall asleep, but are very short acting, and may not be very effective for staying asleep. Others are more effective in minimising number of awakenings for up to eight hours. All hypnotics have a sedation effect. So, you still may be drowsy during the day, but from medication effects. Your physician can best determine the choice of drug and dosage that will balance a good night’s rest with minimal or no daytime sedation. Hypoglycemic agents Commonly know as They are used for Examples Osteoporosis therapy Commonly know as They are used for Examples Tranquilisers Commonly know as They are used for Examples From time to time we all feel stressed about our job or what our teenagers are up to, but we manage to get on with our lives. Sometimes, however, we feel constantly on edge and overwhelmed with worry to the point that it interferes with tasks of daily living. The normal “fear” response takes over inappropriately, and we become immobilised with anxiety. These medications may supplement the support from loved ones and professional counseling. The most commonly used tranquilisers (anxiolytics, antianxiety drugs) have two major actions: to reduce anxiety and to sedate (sleep-inducing). The basic mechanism is to inhibit activity in the area of the brain associated with “fear”. The challenge for your physician is to choose a medication that will reduce anxiety without your falling asleep at your work during the day! What is Puit?n. 1. A well; a small stream; a fountain; a spring. The puits flowing from the fountain of life.
What does the medical term or stand for?OR (abbreviation): Stands for "operating room". A facility equipped for performing surgery. OR is sometimes written O.R.
What does RTC MD mean?RTC. return to clinic (appointment for outpatient for next medical examination) RTS.
What does Q HS mean?q.h.s. quaque hora somni every night at bedtime.
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Puit medical abbreviation
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